Hamlet PETROSYAN
Haykuhi MURADYAN
Preserving the cultural heritage of Artsakh poses a significant challenge for the Republic of Armenia and Armenians all over the world. Since the establishment of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the appropriation of Armenian cultural heritage has been an integral component of Azerbaijan’s state policy. This includes both physical destruction and manipulative practices such as renaming and distorting historical realities (Petrosyan et al, 2023). The overarching objective of this policy is to legitimize territorial claims and establish a narrative suggesting that Azerbaijan or their historical “ancestors” have longstanding roots in the region. Despite obstacles posed by the enduring presence of Armenians in the area and a rich cultural heritage dating back at least to the 6th century BC, Azerbaijani policy has consistently aimed at advancing this narrative. This goal persists, with Azerbaijan employing various methods to exploit cultural heritage, both during times of peace and conflict.
Historical background
The official list of monuments in the territory of the Republic of Artsakh includes more than 4,000 monuments, ten percent of which are pre-Christian, about 1.5 percent are Muslim, about 20 of which are from the 14th-16th centuries (Petrosyan, Muradyan 2022, 5). The rest are Armenian Christian monuments dating back to the 4th-19th centuries. The existence of a huge Armenian Christian heritage is in itself the most essential indicator of the historical-legal affiliation of the area.
The appropriation of Armenian cultural heritage by Azerbaijani authorities commenced in the 1920s and 1930s, notably accelerated by the influence of Soviet atheistic ideology. However, it evolved into an organized and coordinated policy in the late 1950s, coinciding with Khrushchev’s “Thaw” policy, which permitted Soviet republics to interpret and assimilate cultural heritage in alignment with their national goals. From the 1960s onward, the “conquest” of Artsakh’s cultural heritage became an integral aspect of the Azerbaijani government’s persecution of Armenians. The manipulation of Artsakh’s cultural heritage involved a complex external mechanism and a flexible internal one. On an intellectual level, it adopted a pseudoscientific character (Petrosyan 2020).
Relatively peaceful times: Cultural heritage of Artsakh during 1994-2020
The Independent Artsakh Republic faces substantial challenges in the preservation and global promotion of its cultural heritage due to the non-recognition of its sovereignty, ongoing security concerns arising from a state of war, and its isolation from international cooperation. Additionally, barriers to membership in international organizations further compound these difficulties. Despite these obstacles, since the 1994 ceasefire, the Republic of Artsakh has committed itself to organizing the protection of both tangible and intangible cultural heritage, striving to do so under relatively peaceful conditions. This principle was enshrined in the legislative system of the Artsakh Republic in the form of relevant laws (In particular, it should be mentioned the NKR Law on the Fundamentals of Cultural Legislation, June 18; NKR Law on Intangible Cultural Heritage–October 26, 2011; NKR Government Decision No. 748-N of November 29, 2010 “On Approval of the Concept of Art Education”; Law of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic “On Museum Fund” February 12, 1999; Law of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic “On Libraries” HO-36-N of June 27, 2013; NKR Government Resolution No. 890-N “On Approval of the Concept of Preservation of Intangible Cultural Heritage and Protection of Its Viability” HO-36-N of June 27, 2013; Decision of the NKR Government of June 18, 2013 380-A “On approving the program of cultural development in the NKR regions” etc.)։
Before the 44-day Artsakh war (2020), the Artsakh Republic created a vibrant cultural landscape, encompassing various artistic and educational institutions. These included State Theaters, State Chamber Orchestra, Chamber State Choir, State Jazz Orchestra, Music schools, Art schools, Houses of Culture, Palaces of Culture and Youth, Art unions, etc.. This diverse array of cultural entities highlighted the richness and diversity of Artsakh’s cultural life before the onset of the war.
The Artsakh Republic has undertaken significant efforts in recent years to preserve its historical-cultural immovable heritage. The compilation of a comprehensive list, including passports for over 4000 units and protection zones for around 1500 monuments, underscores the commitment to safeguarding tangible and intangible cultural values. The government of Artsakh has implemented various measures to enhance the quality of staff and improve their social status, ensuring broader access to cultural heritage.
From 1994 to 2020, the Artsakh authorities have initiated research and restoration projects focused on both religious and secular structures and complexes, such as churches, monasteries, monuments, mansions, palaces, and bridges. Archaeological excavations have been conducted in significant locations, including the cave of Azokh village in Hadrut region, the “Shmanek” cave in Mets Tagher village of the same region, the “Karin Tak” cave in Karin Tak village of Shushi region, etc. These endeavors demonstrate a commitment to preserving and understanding the rich historical and cultural heritage of Artsakh.
Serious research works have been carried out especially in Christian monuments, such as Amaras Monastery, Dadivank, Horekavank, Hakobavank, Tsitsernavank, Handaberd Monastery, Vaghuhas “Mayraqaghak” (Capital) Monastery, the melik mansion of Togh, Berdashen, St. Stepanos Monastery of Vachar, etc.
Research and restoration works have been carried out in the monuments of Karmrakuch, Karaglukh, Chankatagh, Karmir village and other settlements. A new church was built in Karaglukh village of Hadrut region, the old church of the community was partially restored. Restoration works were carried out in Gtchavank, Dadivank, Amaras, Ptkesberk monastery, Kusanats monastery, Pirumashen church, Dizapayt Kataro monastery. The mosque of Juhar agha in Shushi was completely restored.
The restoration and construction works of the monuments were carried out both with the means allocated from the state budget of the Artsakh Republic, as well as with the donations of various philanthropists and benefactors.
In the realm of museum and library development, concerted efforts have been made in Artsakh to acquire new exhibits, enrich collections, enhance service quality, and improve building infrastructure, properties, and logistical conditions. Notably, the establishment of new museums, including Tigranakert, Kashatagh, and Shushi, has been a significant achievement.
Special attention has been given to hosting annual events dedicated to International Museum Day, Museum Night, European Heritage Day, and Librarian’s Day. These events are integral to the field of cultural heritage conservation, aligning with international processes and fostering cooperation.
Despite facing challenges, the educational and cultural life of Artsakh had been gradually stabilizing, laying a foundation for development. Unfortunately, the progress was abruptly interrupted due to the outbreak of the war in 2020, impacting the region’s stability and cultural initiatives.
Cultural heritage during 44-day Artsakh war and after
The war initiated by Azerbaijan on September 27, 2020, had evident intentions not only to target the local population but also to inflict harm upon the cultural heritage of the region. Specific cultural objects became deliberate targets of the Azerbaijani army during the conflict. It is important to emphasize that the intentional destruction of cultural values during armed conflicts, as outlined by several international conventions and declarations, is unequivocally considered a war crime. Such actions are condemned as they contribute to the irreparable loss of cultural heritage, which holds significance not only for the affected communities but also for humanity at large.
The most visual example is the bombing of the Holy Savior Ghazanchetsots Church in Shushi, on which two shells exploded on October 8, 2020. Earlier, during the war, the Culture and Youth Center of Shushi was bombed (it was reopened in 2017 after renovation). During the war, the Palace of Culture in Martuni city was also shelled. The residents of Hadrut, who had to leave their homes, state that the patriotic museum after A. Mkrtchyan in Hadrut was burned down. On November 5, 2020, the field camp of Tigranakert archeological expedition was shelled.
After the signing of the ceasefire agreement on November 9, 2020, the vandalism of cultural monuments and educational institutions in the territories under Azerbaijani control has become more intense. Evidence of this are the videos regularly posted on social media by Azerbaijani users, where the Azerbaijani side destroys, distorts and desecrates Armenian cultural values.
One of the well-known examples is the video published by the Azerbaijani user on November 15, 2020, where the Saint John the Baptist Church in Shushi known as Kanach Zham (Green Church) was partially destroyed. From the video it becomes clear that the dome and the bell tower of the church were completely destroyed. Another video posted on the Internet clearly shows that Holy All Savior Ghazanchetsots Church in Shushi was also tortured. It was cleaned up due to the criticism and pressure of the international community.
Since the announcement of the ceasefire, the church of St. Astvatsatsin in Mekhakavan (Jebrayil) was vanished, a cross-shaped monument in the village of Shukurbeyli in the same region and the khachkar of Araqel villiage in the region of Hadrut were destroyed.
In the occupied territories of Artsakh, the Azerbaijanis are committing special atrocities against the Armenian monuments, memorials and complexes dedicated to the Artsakh Liberation War and its heroes. As a result of this policy, a monument to the victims of the Armenian Genocide was demolished in Shushi. In the occupied village of Azokh in Hadrut region, Azeris destroyed three separate monuments dedicated to the memory of the victims of the Great Patriotic War, the First Artsakh War and the Armenian Genocide, the monument devoted to the freedom fighters of Hadrut was also destroyed the khachkar dedicated to the first Artsakh liberation war in Vorotan (Kubatlu) was completely demolished. Azeris have destroyed the bust of USSR aviation Marshal Armenak Khanperyants (Sergey Khudyakov) in the village Mets Tagher of Hadrut region, In Shushi, the bust of USSR state-political figure Hovhannes (Ivan) Tevosyan, the bust of the national hero, military leader Tevan Stepanyan in Tumi village of the occupied region of Hadrut. The statue of Vazgen Sargsyan, the national hero of Armenia and Artsakh, located in the city of Shushi, was also vandalized. The monuments dedicated to the Artsakh liberation war in Talish, Qarin Tak, Mokhrenes, Zardanashen and Avetaranots villages were destroyed.
Under the guise of “construction works”, Azerbaijan is purposefully eliminating the Armenian historical settlements near the road, which are the proof of the millennial existence of Armenians in the region. Satellite images made it possible to document the destruction of the historic cemetery of Shushi. The cemetery of Mets Tagher village of Hadrut and Sghnakh cemetery of Shosh community of Askeran region were also demolished․
After the war, the Kataro church in the village of Togh in Hadrut was turned into a military shelter by the Azerbaijani armed forces.
The mechanism of “Albanization” of the Armenian cultural heritage by Azerbaijan continues to operate even today. Vivid examples of this are the proclamation of the Dadivank and Tsakuri village church as Caucasian Albanian and the falsification of Armenian inscriptions and khachkars, the “orthodoxy” of the Holy All Savior Ghazanchetsots Church in Shushi, and its illegal “restorations” on that false basis. “construction” works carrying out near the “Tukhnakal” mansion complex, etc. Unfortunately, such examples are numerous, their number is growing day by day.
Issues of Cultural Heritage after September 2023
From September 19th to October 5th, 2023, Azerbaijan completed a plan of ethnic cleansing of Armenians from The Republic of Artsakh, an area where Armenians have lived for centuries. This happened gradually over three years, involving a big war in 2020, continuous breaking of ceasefire agreements, and slow military advances after the fighting officially stopped. From December 2022, there was a ten-month blockade, cutting off important resources like gas, electricity, and aid. In the final stage, there was a one-day war and Azerbaijani forces took control up to the outskirts of Stepanakert, the capital of the Republic of Artsakh. Faced with a serious threat, more than 100,000 Armenians living in Artsakh, almost the entire population forcibly moved to Armenia in just one week.
The aftermath of this military action has stirred heightened apprehension over the potential threat posed to the rich Armenian cultural heritage that remains in the region. Approximately 6,000 monuments in Artsakh, more than two dozen museums and private collections are now within the control of Azerbaijani government which is very well known for its unwavering intolerance towards Armenian historical remnants.
The cases of vandalism and aggression towards the Armenian heritage in Artsakh territory has increased after September 1-day war, 2023. “Monument Watch” project (about this project read afterwards) has documented more than 40 alerts of cultural vandalism. Among them are: – the destruction of the fraternal (military) cemetery of in the village of Haterk in the region of Martakert (https://monumentwatch.org/en/alerts/azerbaijan-has-vandalized-the-fraternal-military-cemetery-in-the-village-of-haterk-in-artsakh/), – the destruction of Anatoly Zinevich’s bust in Stepanakert (https://monumentwatch.org/en/alerts/the-act-of-destruction-of-anatoly-zinevichs-bust/), – the damage of khachkar monument in Martakert city (https://monumentwatch.org/en/alerts/azerbaijanis-reportedly-damage-historical-khachkar-monument-in-martakert-city/), -the destruction of the spring-monument in Aghanus village, Kashatagh region (https://monumentwatch.org/en/alerts/azerbaijans-destruction-of-the-spring-monument-in-aghanus-village-kashatagh-region/ ), -the destruction of cemeteries of Shushi (https://monumentwatch.org/en/alerts/azerbaijan-engages-in-the-destruction-of-cemeteries-in-shushi/ ) and etc.
As evident from satellite photos released by the “Caucasus Heritage Monitoring”((https://caucasusheritage.cornell.edu) initiative, the remnants of the Meghretsots Surb Astvatsatsin Church in the city of Shushi have been harmed due to construction activities undertaken in the occupied city of Shushi. According to the satellite photo taken on November 3, 2023, the Azerbaijani side utilized heavy machinery to deposit construction debris from the surrounding areas onto the foundations and structures of the church exposed during the excavations in 2017 (https://www.facebook.com/CaucasusHW/posts/pfbid02LpUY9LGKK6M2grQyGd2ondbAJ9zS4E6w5mZCDxG9KHJAnMwRS8P8HudEBng8UhKhl).
Azerbaijan persists in its state policy of cultural destruction in Artsakh even after the complete depopulation. The latest target of this campaign was the statue of Stepan Shahumyan, a significant social and political figure, leader of Russian revolution movement in Caucasus (https://monumentwatch.org/en/alerts/azerbaijanis-vandalize-statue-of-stepan-shahumyan-in-stepanakert/ ). In early November 2023, reports from international Telegram channels documented the toppling of the statue of Stepan Shahumyan in the occupied Stepanakert square.
After Armenian’s forcibly displacement Azerbaijan swiftly directed its focus to the monastery complexes of Gandzasar and Amaras, declaring the ‘liberation’ of these well-known “Caucasian Albanian” sanctuaries and pilgrimage sites. Subsequent to this declaration, the Azerbaijani propaganda machinery launched an extensive campaign to widely circulate misleading and propagandistic narratives regarding these monasteries. These narratives lack factual accuracy and contradict established scholarly accounts.
These statements unquestionably present a notable threat to the safeguarding of the monastic complexes. The advocacy for de-Armenianization narratives has the potential to result in the distortion of the genuine architecture of these monasteries, putting at risk the obliteration of numerous Armenian inscriptions, crosses, and cross compositions.
Hence, Azerbaijani aggression and lack of tolerance towards Armenian heritage are evident realities, constituting a clear policy. This has resulted in the imminent danger, destruction, and distortion of significant elements of the Armenian heritage. On one front, these heritage values face the risk of physical obliteration, while on another front the identity of these values is systematically eroded by Azerbaijani authorities.
Cultural Heritage of Artsakh and international law
There are various international conventions, declarations, laws and code of ethics which are regulating and formulating legal systems for the protection of cultural heritage. The main legal bases for the protection of Artsakh’s cultural heritage are derived from the Hague convention for the protection of the cultural property in the event of Armed conflict adopted on 14th of May, 1954. It is important also to mention Convention’s implementing regulations, and the first and second protocols (adopted in 1954 and 1999). Article 1 of the Convention defines cultural value: “ movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people, such as monuments of architecture, art or history, whether religious or secular; archaeological sites; groups of buildings which, as a whole, are of historical or artistic interest; works of art; manuscripts, books and other objects of artistic, historical or archaeological interest; as well as scientific collections and important collections of books or archives or of reproductions of the property defined above”. Article 4 of the convention undertake to prohibit, prevent and, if necessary, put a stop to any form of theft, pillage or misappropriation of, and any acts of vandalism directed against, cultural property. The first Additional Protocol (1954) of the Convention sets out the mechanisms for the protection of cultural heritage in the Occupied Territories and the conditions for the illegal removal or return of heritage. Second Protocol to the Hague Convention (1999), particularly, Article 9 (1) proposes provisions on the protection of cultural heritage in the occupied territories. The second part of Article 21 of the same document requires states to prevent such violations.
Numerous cases of distortion, destruction and misappropriation of cultural heritage show that the Azerbaijani side violates its obligations under the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property during the Armed Conflict, ratified in 1993, and its two protocols, which specifically state (Article 4): “The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect cultural property situated within their own territory as well as within the territory of other High Contracting Parties by refraining from any use of the property and its immediate surroundings or of the appliances in use for its protection for purposes which are likely to expose it to destruction or damage in the event of armed conflict; and by refraining from any act of hostility directed against such property”.
The Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols also have some points regarding the protection of cultural heritage during armed conflicts. Article 85 (4) of the first protocol prohibits “Targeting historical monuments, works of art or places of worship that are considered the cultural or spiritual heritage of the peoples”.
Principles of protection of cultural heritage in the occupied territories are also offered by a number of other UNESCO conventions. “Declaration on the Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Heritage” adopted in 2003, Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972, Convention on the Prohibition of the Illegal Import and Export of Cultural Property and the illegal Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970). Defamation of monuments, vandalism is a discriminatory attitude towards the heritage of the Armenians of Artsakh, which is also protected by Article 5 of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.
The basic premise of these conventions is that the targeting or deliberate destruction of cultural heritage should be viewed as an act against world heritage and should be criticized by the international community. The main disadvantage of the above-mentioned conventions is that they are intended to be addressed to internationally recognized states. In the case of Artsakh, these conventions do not seem to be effective, as Artsakh is an internationally unrecognized state. In this case, the issue of realization of the cultural rights of the indigenous peoples should be given priority. In this sense, it is more expedient to study the Roman law (statute) of the International Criminal Court, which considers the premeditated destruction of cultural values a war crime.
Private Initiations in Safeguarding Cultural Heritage of Artsakh
- Monument Watch (https://monumentwatch.org/)
The “Monument Watch” project spearheaded by Dr. Hamlet Petrosyan (Head of the Department of Cultural Studies, Yerevan State University) stands as an independent academic initiative. Functioning as a dedicated platform, it aims to systematically record, present, and analyze events related to the cultural heritage of Artsakh within the bounds of professional knowledge and academic goodwill. The primary objective of the project is to meticulously map and inventory the immovable cultural heritage, museums, and cultural centers of the Artsakh Republic as they existed before the 44-day war. These cultural assets, now under Azerbaijani control, are subject to scrutiny to document their current state, including any instances of destruction, alteration, reuse, deletion, or modification of sculptures, images, inscriptions, and the adoption of new symbols.
The project further seeks to communicate these changes to the international scientific and cultural community, shedding light on the transformations and potential threats faced by Artsakh’s cultural heritage. The interdisciplinary team includes archaeologists, architects, cultural anthropologists, specialists in Armenian studies, media and internet experts, as well as translators, ensuring a comprehensive and multifaceted approach to the documentation and dissemination of information related to Artsakh’s cultural heritage.
The website’s structure is organized to effectively address project goals and concerns, featuring three main sections with eight subsections. The initial section, “Sites and Monuments,” currently showcases around 200 monuments situated in territories now under Azerbaijani control, with ongoing additions each week. Descriptions adhere to scientific standards, incorporating archival-historical sources and releasing unpublished archival materials. As an example, materials regarding the construction, project, and realization of St. Ghazanchetsots Church in Shushi are available (https://monumentwatch.org/monument/holy-all-savior-ghazanchetsots-church-in-shushi/).
The “Alerts” section of the site serves as a repository for instances illustrating the destruction, misappropriation, and desecration of cultural heritage perpetrated by Azerbaijan – an unfortunate trend that continues to grow. The third section, titled “Sources,” provides a compilation of international conventions, documents, and legal regulations pertinent to the safeguarding of cultural heritage, not solely during the conflict but also in the territories now occupied. Launched in May 2021, the site has garnered popularity within scientific and public circles.
- Caucasus Heritage Watch (https://caucasusheritage.cornell.edu/)
The second initiative, Caucasus Heritage Watch, was also launched after the 44-day Artsakh war in 2020. The project’s objective is to thoroughly investigate and document both past and potential future damage to the cultural heritage of Artsakh. In the context of war and genocide, the cultural landscape serves as a vital witness to the state of cultural heritage sites. These documented facts serve as evidence to counteract state denialism, falsification, and other abuses that often place heritage sites at the forefront of political conflicts.
The project employs satellite photos to capture and document instances of destruction of Artsakh’s cultural heritage perpetrated by Azerbaijan. Owned by Cornell University in the USA, the site has been operational since June 2021. It is structured into three main sections, outlining the project’s purpose, addressing the identified problems, and presenting documented cases of destruction or alteration of cultural heritage through satellite images.
Caucasus Heritage Watch collaborates with the Monument Watch initiative, providing mutual assistance in terms of professional knowledge and consultation. Together, these initiatives contribute to the comprehensive understanding and documentation of the threats faced by the cultural heritage of Artsakh.
Conclusion
Various stakeholders, including state bodies, civil society, scientists, and intellectuals from both Armenia and Artsakh, consistently bring attention to the challenges facing Armenian cultural heritage in international forums. Despite these efforts, it is noteworthy that international structures have yet to take decisive political steps or actively pursue solutions for the preservation of the Armenian cultural heritage in Artsakh.
The use of terminology and language in describing the forced deportation of Artsakh Armenians and presenting it in international legal terms is a critical issue. The selection of terms plays a pivotal role, necessitating a meticulous examination of international legal documents to accurately articulate the situation. This underscores the importance of precision and clarity in conveying the circumstances surrounding the forced displacement of Artsakh Armenians on the international stage.
The current challenge lies in determining the legal status of cultural values evacuated to Armenia. Efforts are required to address the legal and constitutional protection of the cultural heritage that has been relocated. Collaboration of decision-makers involving representatives from the Republic of Armenia, Artsakh, the Armenian Apostolic Church, and cultural experts is crucial to navigate this complex issue.
Emphasizing the need to prioritize the protection of Artsakh’s cultural heritage, it is essential to elevate this task to a primary concern for international cultural protection structures. Establishing specific mechanisms is imperative for organizing the preservation and global awareness of cultural heritage. This involves exploring the diverse roles of international, private, and state initiatives, and determining how resources can be effectively consolidated to ensure the safeguarding of cultural heritage on a global scale.
The appropriation of Artsakh’s cultural heritage is a systematically implemented policy orchestrated by Azerbaijani authorities, backed by substantial professional and financial resources. To counteract this policy effectively, there is a pressing need for a concerted, well-resourced approach. The Armenian side must collaboratively develop a comprehensive policy, emphasizing the formulation of a unified strategy. Key strategic priorities include defining a shared policy concept, addressing protection concerns, regulating international legal and scientific platforms and mechanisms, and consolidating professional expertise. By focusing on these priorities, the goal is to establish a robust framework for safeguarding Artsakh’s cultural heritage against external threats and challenges.
Literature
- Petrosyan 2020- Petrosyan H., Ethnocide in Artsakh: The Mechanisms of Azerbaijan’s Usurpation of Indigenous Armenian Cultural Heritage, Cultural Heritage Experience & Perspectives In International Context Proceedings Of The Rochemp Center International Conference 23rd – 24th of January, Yerevan, 79-90.
- Petrosyan, Muradyan 2022- Petrosyan H., Muradyan H., Cultural Heritage of Artsakh under attack, Yerevan.
- Petrosyan et al, 2023- Petrosyan H. Leyloyan A., Muradyan H., Tigranyan A., Azerbaijan’s Policy of Extortion and Destruction of Armenian Cultural Heritage in Artsʿakh, Brill Academic Pub, 2023. 42-56.
- “Monument Watch” project // monumentwatch.org
- “Caucasus Heritage Watch” project // https://caucasusheritage.cornell.edu/
Illustrations
Fig 1 The monastery of Gandzasar, photo by Hamlet Petrosyan.
Fig 2 The monastery of Amaras, photo by Hamlet Petrosyan.
Fig 3 The Monastry of Dadivank, photo by Hamlet Petrosyan.
Fig 4 Haterk cemetery vandalized by Azerbaijan.
Fig 5 The destruction of Anatoly Zinevich’s bust.
Fig 6 The destruction of Stepan Shahumyan’s statue in Stepanakert.
The article was prepared within the framework of the Stepanakert Press Club project
